Artificial intelligence as a cognitive partner: a developmental framework for human–AI co-regulation in learning

Over the past decade, artificial intelligence (AI) has undergone a tremendous shift from a highly technical instrument to a household learning, problem-solving, and decision-making cognitive aid. In the context of development, children, adolescents, and adults become increasingly exposed to AI systems that guide or provide feedback and information in real-time. Nevertheless, developmental psychology has failed to provide a theoretical framework concerning the role of AI in cognition regulation across the lifespan. Our conceptual analysis proposes that AI may be conceptualized not only as an external tool but also as a cognitive partner involved in the co-regulation of thinking, learning, and self-control. Using the concepts of executive function, metacognition, distributed cognition, and sociocultural development, we describe a developmental paradigm of human–AI co-regulation, with AI systems serving as scaffolds, metacognitive support, and external memory systems. We also comment on the benefits of conceptualizing AI as a mental partner in the form of offloading, the possible risks of cognitive offloading, and education and research implications.