Geomorphology-dependent patterns and drivers of gross ecosystem product in a global karst hotspot: evidence from Guizhou Province, China

Introduction Gross ecosystem product (GEP) provides a monetary indicator of ecosystem contributions to human well-being, yet its spatiotemporal heterogeneity and associated factors remain insufficiently understood in geomorphologically complex karst regions. Methods Using Guizhou Province, Southwest China, as a global karst hotspot, we quantified GEP in 2000, 2010, and 2020 and examined its spatial patterns and associated drivers across typical karst (TK), sub-karst (SK), and non-karst (NK) zones. A task-oriented multi-scale framework was employed, integrating global Moran’s I for spatial dependence analysis and GeoDetector for factor and interaction detection. Results The GEP increased from CNY 1.68 × 10 12 in 2000 to CNY 2.10 × 10 12 in 2020, following a decline in 2000–2010 and a strong rebound in 2010–2020. High GEP areas were concentrated in southwestern and southern Guizhou and expanded northward and eastward. GEP exhibited significant positive spatial autocorrelation in all three years. NDVI was the dominant factor associated with GEP spatial differentiation, while elevation and slope acted as persistent background constraints. Interaction effects were mainly characterized by nonlinear enhancement, and natural—anthropogenic interactions became more important over time. Distinct association regimes of GEP drivers were identified across the three geomorphological zones. The multi-scale framework further provided complementary evidence on continuous spatial heterogeneity, clustering patterns, and governance-relevant territorial differences. Discussion GEP-oriented ecological management in karst regions should be both geomorphology specific and scale-aware.