Amphibian conservation in urban areas: a review of green infrastructure for achieving One Health

Urbanization poses major threats to amphibian populations worldwide through habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation. Approaches to amphibian conservation vary depending on project objectives. Effective urban conservation requires multifaceted strategies that account for spatial scale, habitat connectivity, and technological innovation. This review aims to: (i) examine the role of Green Infrastructure (GI) in supporting amphibian conservation in urban environments, (ii) evaluate the contribution of Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) to habitat connectivity, (iii) explore the potential of microbiome research in linking ecological and human health, and (iv) assess the role of citizen science in conservation activities. This review was conducted as a structured narrative synthesis following PRISMA-informed guidelines to enhance transparency in the literature selection process. The findings indicate that GI approaches can support amphibian populations across spatial scales. At the microhabitat level, ponds and small green spaces provide essential breeding and refuge habitats, while at the landscape scale, BGI enhances connectivity and reduces fragmentation. Microbiome research offers new insights into host-environment interactions, and citizen science enables large-scale assessment and public engagement in conservation. However, several knowledge gaps remain, including limited long-term monitoring data, insufficient integration of interdisciplinary approaches, and geographic biases that combine ecological, technological, and social perspectives to advance amphibian conservation within a One Health framework.