Fencing disrupts spatiotemporal scaling of North American bison ecology: implications for conservation as wildlife

Hierarchy theory proposes that ecological processes are structured across temporal and spatial scales. However, structured scaling of the range of ecological phenomena of a wildlife species across its historic range has yet to be explicitly demonstrated. Through a systematic review of primary literature (1889-2023) on North American bison ( Bison bison ) managed as wildlife, we validate for the first time spatiotemporal structure across a wide range of ecological phenomena for both sub-species of the North American bison (Plains bison, B. b. bison , and Wood bison, B. b. athabascae ) across much of the species historic home range. We also found fencing disrupts the spatial scaling of ecological phenomena in Plains bison compared to free ranging herds. Lack of research on Wood bison managed as wildlife behind fences precluded assessing potential fencing effects on this subspecies. Our findings clearly demonstrate the limitations in continuing to attempt wild North American bison conservation behind fences.