Nanobiosensors: enabling next-generation soil and plant health monitoring

Soil health is a critical determinant of sustainable agriculture and ecosystem stability, yet conventional soil analysis methods remain labor-intensive and unsuitable for real-time monitoring. Nanobiosensors have emerged as advanced tools enabling rapid, sensitive, and on-site detection of key soil parameters. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of nanobiosensor technologies, including electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and magnetic sensors, along with enzyme-, DNA and cell-based systems. Their underlying sensing mechanisms, such as signal transduction through electrical, optical, and mechanical changes, are discussed in detail. The applications of nanobiosensors in monitoring soil nutrients, heavy metals, microbial activity, moisture, and plant health are critically analyzed, highlighting their role in precision agriculture. Integration with Internet of Things (IoT)-based platforms for real-time and data-driven decision-making is also emphasized. Key insights reveal that while nanobiosensors offer high sensitivity, selectivity, and rapid response, challenges related to stability, calibration, and large-scale field deployment persist. Future research should focus on improving sensor durability, standardization, and cost-effective scalability for practical agricultural implementation. This review advances current understanding of nanobiosensor technologies and their potential to transform next-generation soil and plant health monitoring systems.