A chromosome level genome, as well as transcriptomes and metabolomes, insights into genome evolution and the biosynthesis of kaempferol and kaempferol derivatives in Impatiens balsamina (Balsaminaceae)

Impatiens balsamina is a plant with notable medicinal, ornamental, and edible value. However, knowledge of its genome evolution and molecular pharmacognosy remains limited. Here, a multi-omics approaches including genome sequencing, transcriptome and metabolome profiling of roots, leaves, and flowers were integrated performed. A 691.61 Mb chromosome-level draft genome of I. balsamina is presented, with annotation revealing 32,949 protein-coding genes. It is proposed that two rounds of whole-genome duplication events may be major drivers of species diversity in Balsaminaceae lineages and Impatiens . A considerable number of beneficial secondary metabolites, including dihydrokaempferol, kaempferol, and five kaempferol derivatives (KKDs), accumulated at markedly different levels in the roots, leaves, and flowers of I. balsamina . The structural genes IbCHI , IbCHS , IbF3H , and IbFLS , as well as the glycosyltransferase IbUGT73C, which are involved in KKD biosynthesis, were identified. In addition, transcription factor genes from the WRKY, bHLH, MYB, and Myb-like families, and a P450 gene were suggested to directly regulate KKD biosynthesis, based on correlation analysis, WGCNA, and protein-protein interactions. Overall, these findings provide insights into the genome evolution and molecular pharmacognosy of I. balsamina and offer a foundation for breeding and drug development, not only for I. balsamina but also for other Impatiens species.