From photoperiod thresholds to photoperiod sensitivity: dual strategies for cost-effective speed breeding and climate-ready barley

Abstract Yield and the duration of the growing season are closely linked. Climate change may shorten growing seasons in certain European regions, and reducing the time to flowering could be an effective strategy to mitigate its effects. Therefore, exploring allelic combinations shape flowering time, is needed. Additionally, speed breeding (SB), characterized by extended photoperiods to accelerate generation time, can be energy-intensive, and the shortest day length needed to induce rapid flowering remains unknown. We present the first integrated study of how allelic variation at three key flowering time genes, PPD-H1, ELF3 and PHYC , modulates three parameters of the photoperiod response model: threshold photoperiod, photoperiod sensitivity, and intrinsic earliness. We recorded flowering under lengths of 16–24h in Near Isogenic Lines carrying PhyC-e or PhyC-I allele within ppd-H1 background, and in lines from HEB-25 combining wild and domesticated alleles of ELF3 and PPD-H1 . The ELF3 allele in ppd-H1 background reduced intrinsic earliness, whereas PhyC-e reduced photoperiod sensitivity, opening opportunities for climate change adaptation. Remarkably, ppd-H1 lines flowered at a 20-h threshold, whereas Ppd-H1 lines showed no response, consequently we propose new SB photoperiods at 20 and 16h depending on PPD-H1 background. These photoperiods lower energy costs compared to the current 22h standard. Highlights By studying barley key photoperiod response genes, our results support energy-efficient speed breeding and the development of climate-resilient varieties through targeted genetic control of flowering time.