Augmented reality and embodied learning: effects of embodiment degrees on students’ learning achievement, cognitive load, and technology acceptance

Introduction: Embodiment in augmented reality has attracted increasing attention in educational research. This study investigated how the degree of embodied experience in augmented reality affects high school students' learning achievement, cognitive load, and technology acceptance. Methods: Drawing on embodied cognition and the Cone of Experience, augmented reality learning tasks were designed with different degrees of embodied experience and implemented in biology instruction on cell structure. A total of 122 Chinese high school students participated and were assigned to either low- or high-embodiment augmented reality experiences. Data were analyzed using analyses of covariance, with learners' prior knowledge scores entered as a covariate to control for pre-existing differences in knowledge level. Results: Students who engaged in high-embodiment augmented reality achieved better learning performance in both knowledge retention and transfer, and they also reported significantly lower cognitive load. In terms of technology acceptance, high-embodiment augmented reality enhanced perceived usefulness, while low-embodiment augmented reality was associated with higher perceived ease of use. Discussion: These findings demonstrate that the degree of embodiment in augmented reality experiences differentially influences learning achievement, cognitive load, and technology acceptance, offering empirical evidence and practical guidance for optimizing embodied augmented reality design in education.