K-12 students’ basic psychological needs satisfaction in online learning: perceived level, group difference, and its influence

Background: In the post-pandemic educational landscape, online learning has become increasingly embedded in K-12 education. Self-determination theory claims that satisfying basic psychological needs is critical in student learning. Despite numerous empirical researches on basic psychological needs, there remains limited understanding of K-12 students' perceived level, group differences of basic psychological needs satisfaction in online learning and its influence on online learning engagement. Objectives: This study aims to (i) examine K-12 students' perceived levels of basic psychological needs satisfaction in online learning; (ii) analyze group differences based on gender and grade level; and (iii) test the influence of need satisfaction on cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement in online learning. Methodology: -tests, one-way ANOVA, Pearson correlations, and multiple regression analyses. Results: Results indicated that most students reported moderate levels of psychological needs satisfaction, with few reporting high levels. Significant differences were found across grade levels: middle school students reported higher satisfaction than both elementary and high school students, and elementary students scored higher than high school students; no significant gender differences were observed. Regression analyses revealed that autonomy and competence significantly predicted all three dimensions of engagement. Competence emerged as the strongest predictor. Relatedness significantly predicted emotional and behavioral engagement but not cognitive engagement. Conclusion and implications: These findings extend Self-Determination Theory to the context of K-12 online learning and highlight the differential roles of the three basic needs. The results underscore the importance of designing online instruction that enhances competence and autonomy to promote student engagement. Educational policymakers and practitioners should consider grade-specific strategies to better support students' basic psychological needs in digital environments.