Gender differences in digital literacy: a systematic and meta-analytic review across developmental stages and socio-cultural contexts

Gender differences in digital literacy persist across educational stages and cultural sites, yet findings remain inconsistent. This systematic and meta-analytic review synthesizes evidence from 43 studies conducted in 31 regions between 2005 and 2023, examining gender disparities in DL performance and growth from Grade 3 to Grade 12. The cross-sectional meta-analysis, based on 67 effect sizes, revealed a consistant female advantage ( g = +0.14, 95% CI [0.11, 0.18]). The longitudinal meta-analysis, incorporating six effect sizes, showed comparable growth rates for girls ( d = 1.48, p < 0.001) and boys ( d = 1.29, p < 0.001). Gender differences were most pronounced in upper primary and lower secondary education and unexpectedly larger in highly developed regions than in developing ones. These findings challenge traditional assumptions about gender equity and support the gender-equality paradox, suggesting that socio-cultural and developmental factors interact to shape DL outcomes. Methodological variability, including test modality and psychometric modeling, also contributed to inconsistencies across studies. This review calls for international collaboration for research and practice reforms to safeguard gender equality through education. Systematic review registration https://osf.io/9yax4/overview .