Listening comprehension and its influence on reading fluency in primary students with special educational needs: a study in mainstream inclusive classrooms

Developing literacy is a fundamental goal of public education. In pursuit of inclusive and equitable quality education (SDG 4), a deeper understanding of literacy development in pupils with special educational needs (SEN) is essential. Guided by the Direct and Indirect Effects Model of Reading (DIER), this longitudinal study investigated the development of listening comprehension (LC) and its role in reading fluency among a heterogeneous sample of SEN pupils ( N = 103) identified by teachers in Chinese inclusive primary schools. Standardized assessments showed that pupils with SEN had lower LC than their typically developing peers in the same grades, and this gap widened over 1 year. Robust regression analysis revealed that vocabulary exerted a substantial positive effect on LC, while gender and grade were not. Both LC and orthographic knowledge significantly predicted reading fluency. These findings highlight the potential benefits of (1) targeted interventions to strengthen vocabulary, LC, and orthographic knowledge in pupils with SEN, and (2) refining teacher-based SEN identification procedures, which may contribute to enhancing inclusive education quality and promoting educational equity.