A network meta-analysis of pedagogical models in physical education: evaluating multidimensional learning outcomes and instructional duration effects

Purpose This study systematically evaluated the comparative effectiveness of pedagogical models (PMs) on multidimensional learning outcomes in physical education and examined the moderating role of instructional duration. Methods A systematic search was conducted across seven databases (e.g., Web of Science, PubMed) for studies published between 2000 and 2025. Methodological quality was assessed using MINORS. A Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis (NMA) was performed using standardized mean differences (SMDs) to enable comparison across diverse outcome measures. Results Sixty-five studies met the inclusion criteria. Probabilistic rankings suggested that Hybrid Pedagogical Models (HPMs) showed comparatively high effectiveness for tactical decision-making (SUCRA = 80.1%) and skill execution (SUCRA = 77.2%), Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) ranked highest for student motivation (SUCRA = 82.1%), and Sport Education (SE) demonstrated favourable effects for enjoyment (SUCRA = 74.0%). However, pairwise comparisons revealed overlapping credible intervals, indicating uncertainty in the magnitude of differences between models. In addition, significant publication bias was detected for skill execution outcomes ( p = 0.0077), suggesting that these effects should be interpreted cautiously. Subgroup analyses identified instructional duration as an important moderator, with interventions approaching or exceeding approximately 720 min—equivalent to a sustained instructional unit—associated with more consistent effects and reduced heterogeneity. Conclusion No single pedagogical model can be considered universally superior. Instead, the findings support a goal-oriented approach to model selection aligned with intended learning outcomes and implemented over sufficient instructional duration. Ensuring sustained exposure (≈720 min) appears critical for enabling student-centered pedagogies to realize their educational potential.