Diverse Bacterial Anti-Phage Strategies: From the Laboratory to the Clinic

Refractory infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria have emerged as a substantial threat to public health, prompting renewed interest in phage therapy. Bacteria and phages are ubiquitous in diverse environments, engaging in continuous interaction and co-evolution. In response to phage infection, bacteria have developed an array of defense mechanisms. Current studies on bacteria-phage interactions predominantly focus on laboratory settings using artificial media, whereas the final goal of phage therapy-to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria-lies in its clinical application. This review describes bacterial defense strategies against phage infection in the context of laboratory-based artificial media, animal experiments and clinical cases, aiming to deepen the understanding of bacteria-phage interactions and promote the advancement of effective phage therapy for clinical applications.