Assessing Forest Habitat Structure with LiDAR Across Ungulate Management Gradients

Ungulate browsing is a major driver of forest regeneration dynamics and habitat structure in managed temperate forests, influencing species composition, regeneration success, and long-term stand development. Traditional assessments of browsing impacts often rely on field-based indicators such as regeneration density or visual cover, but these metrics provide limited insight into three-dimensional habitat structure. Mobile handheld LiDAR offers highly detailed measurements of forest structure, enabling objective and reproducible quantification of structural complexity that complements and extends conventional field-based methods. In this study, we applied handheld LiDAR as an innovative indicator for habitat structure within the ungulate browsing zone (