Silvicultural Measures for the Protection of Early-Stage Forest Regeneration from Deer Browsing: A European Perspective

Forests worldwide are increasingly affected by climate-driven stressors and large-scale disturbances that impair tree physiology, disrupt water and carbon balance, and increase mortality risk. In this context, successful natural and artificial regeneration is essential for maintaining forest continuity, carbon storage, and biodiversity. However, regeneration outcomes depend not only on site conditions but also on biotic pressures, especially browsing by cervids in temperate and boreal forests. The aim of this review was to identify and synthesize evidence on how silvicultural methods can reduce browsing damage in forest regeneration and to assess how these methods influence the underlying drivers of cervid pressure through stand structure and forage availability. We examine mechanisms operating at two spatial scales: at the microscale, regeneration type, planting density, structural heterogeneity, planting stock, and how species mixture influences browsing probability and intensity; at the macroscale, how cutting systems and the spatial and temporal arrangement of harvests shape foraging landscapes by concentrating or dispersing browse resources and edge habitats. The reviewed evidence shows that dense, structurally diverse natural regeneration can dilute browsing pressure, whereas uniform artificial regeneration may increase repeated damage, and that species composition and mixture patterns can either protect or expose palatable species. We conclude that integrating microscale regeneration design with landscape-level harvest planning can strengthen stand resilience, reduce dependence on fencing, and support climate-adaptive forest development. To the best of our knowledge, no previous review has synthesized this evidence across both micro- and macroscale silvicultural contexts. Although most of the studies included in this review originate from Europe, we believe that the knowledge presented here is relevant to the majority of boreal and temperate forests worldwide.