Bioactive Peptides–Probiotics Interactions: Implications for Microbial Function and Human Health

Bioactive peptides (BPs) and probiotics have attracted increasing attention in food and nutrition research for their roles in microbial metabolism and functional food development, with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) representing widely used probiotic microorganisms possessing well-characterized metabolic and peptide transport systems within the gut microbiota. This review summarizes current knowledge on food-derived BPs and their interactions with probiotic LAB, with a particular focus on peptide transport and utilization mechanisms, including oligopeptide permease (Opp) and di-/tripeptide permease (Dpp) systems. Sources and production methods of BPs are reviewed, along with experimental evidence describing peptide-supported microbial growth and metabolic responses. Relevant analytical approaches used for peptide characterization and functional assessment are also discussed. Most available evidence derives from controlled in vitro studies and primarily reflects microbial physiological responses rather than direct host-level effects. This review provides a mechanistic perspective on peptide–probiotic interactions in LAB and outlines research directions related to nitrogen utilization and microbial functional performance.