Discrimination and Gender: An Umbrella Review of Psychological Evidence

Gender discrimination is a pervasive and multifaceted phenomenon rooted in cognitive, emotional, and social mechanisms that operate across individual, interpersonal, and structural levels. This umbrella review synthesizes systematic reviews and meta-analyses published between 2013 and 2024 examining the relationship between gender, stereotypes, and discrimination. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, searches were conducted across PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science, yielding 22 eligible reviews after screening 684 records. Thematic synthesis identified two overarching domains: manifestations of discrimination and health and professional outcomes. Discrimination emerged as structural, interpersonal, and implicit, operating through institutional barriers, microaggressions, and stereotyping mechanisms. These dynamics were found to significantly affect mental health, and particularly anxiety, depression, and psychological distress, as well as physical health, including cardiovascular outcomes and maternal morbidity. Professional and social functioning were also impaired, with gender-based inequalities documented in pay, promotion, and role allocation across multiple occupational contexts. Despite consistent evidence of harm, the literature revealed limited consensus in conceptualization and a lack of longitudinal and intervention research. Collectively, findings underscore that gender discrimination constitutes both a public health concern and a systemic social mechanism that shapes individual cognition, emotion, and behaviour, demanding multi-level psychological and policy responses.