Antiviral and Anticancer Activities of Stingless Bee Propolis from Tetragonula drescheri and Tetragonula pagdeni: Toward Development of Prototype Healthcare Pharmaceuticals

Honey and propolis from the stingless bees Tetragonula drescheri and Tetragonula pagdeni remain underexplored for their health-promoting application. This study investigated the bioactive compounds, and antiviral and anticancer activities of honey and propolis extracts against herpes simplex virus (HSV), and human papillomavirus (HPV-16/18)-positive cervical cancer cells. Water and ethanol extracts were prepared and evaluated for anti-HSV activity using plaque assay, and for anticancer effects on CaSki and HeLa cells using apoptosis, colony formation, cell migration, and candidate gene expression analysis. Propolis water extract most potentially inhibited HSV wild-type and drug-resistant strains. Propolis ethanol extract from T. drescheri markedly suppressed CaSki and HeLa cell growth, induced apoptosis, downregulated HPV-16/18 E6, and upregulated BAX expression. Chemical profiles were identified by electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Most candidate compounds displayed preferable drug-likeness properties. Prototype herbal soup formulations containing selected extracts significantly inhibited HSV-1 drug-resistant strain and HPV-16 E6 expression. These findings demonstrated the high antiviral and anticancer potential of the extracted compounds from T. drescheri and T. pagdeni propolis, supporting their application in health-promoting products against HSV and HPV infection.