Mechanical and Environmental Performance of Chemical Pretreated Incineration Bottom Ash as a Supplementary Cementitious Material

Municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash (IBA), a major by-product of waste-to-energy plants, is typically landfilled or utilized as low-grade aggregate due to its low intrinsic reactivity and complex composition. This study systematically investigates the efficacy of chemical pretreatment in enhancing the cementitious behavior of IBA, specifically examining the effects of alkali type (Ca(OH)2, NaOH, and Na2CO3) and pretreatment duration on reactivity, microstructure, and mechanical performance. The results indicate that Ca(OH)2 activation provides the most significant enhancement; a one-day treatment yielded a 28-day strength activity index (H28) of 76% and facilitated the formation of a compact microstructure rich in ettringite (AFt) and C-S-H gels. Conversely, NaOH and Na2CO3 treatments were less effective, leading to increased porosity and reduced strength attributed to charge imbalance and excessive carbonation, respectively. Prolonged alkaline treatment yielded diminishing returns, causing premature gel densification or excessive silicate depolymerization. Life-cycle assessment (LCA) revealed that Na2CO3 pretreatment entails the highest carbon footprint due to its high molar mass and energy-intensive production, whereas NaOH offers the highest CO2 efficiency per unit of reactivity. Overall, Ca(OH)2 represents a balanced strategy, combining strong activation potential, chemical compatibility, and moderate carbon emissions, thereby supporting the sustainable valorization of IBA in low-carbon cementitious systems.