Can Deep-Sea Mining Contribute to the Supply of Critical Minerals Without Compromising Sustainability?

Future shortages of minerals essential for green technologies have driven the search for new supply sources. In this context, deep-sea mining (DSM) has emerged as an innovative alternative for accessing strategic metals such as manganese and cobalt, among others, through the exploitation of deposits including polymetallic nodules, ferromanganese crusts, and seafloor massive sulfides. However, while DSM could help meet the growing demand for minerals, it also presents significant challenges and opportunities. This study compiles and analyzes scientific publications on DSM to assess its potential effects. It reviews the main environmental impacts and, in addition, proposes a systematic classification of them. It also addresses the social and economic effects associated with this activity, considering human dynamics and the factors that shape its long-term viability. The results indicate that, although DSM may offer advantages over terrestrial mining, it still lacks a robust framework to mitigate impacts and anticipate future consequences. Unlike previous reviews focused on partial dimensions of sustainability, this work integrates environmental, social, and economic dimensions through a systematic impact classification. Critical challenges remain in ecological understanding, environmental monitoring, and long-term socio-economic assessment, alongside an international governance framework that is still nascent, reinforcing the need for interdisciplinary research.