Multifunctional PVA Hydrogels with Balanced Mechanical Properties, Passive Radiative Cooling, and Flame Retardancy via Synergistic Freeze–Thawing and Hofmeister Effect

Conventional poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels struggle to integrate the mechanical robustness, thermal management, and fire safety demanded by extreme environments. To overcome this, we fabricate a multifunctional hydrogel via a synergistic strategy combining freeze-thawing and citrate-driven Hofmeister salting-out. Kosmotropic citrate ions aggressively strip polymer hydration shells, driving intense intermolecular hydrogen bonding, elevated crystallinity, and severe network densification. Consequently, the optimized cit@PVA hydrogel exhibits a balanced mechanical performance, achieving a tensile strength of 1.31 MPa and an elongation at break of approximately 150%. The citrate-induced network densification not only reinforces the mechanical integrity of the hydrogel but also regulates its thermal transport characteristics. Benefiting from the dense polymer framework and intrinsic infrared-active chemical structures, the cit@PVA hydrogel demonstrates excellent thermal management capability, including effective high-temperature thermal insulation and high mid-infrared emissivity (~85%) for passive radiative cooling. Furthermore, the incorporated citrate shifts the degradation pathway toward catalytic charring, rapidly forming a dense carbonaceous shield to completely prevent burn-through during direct flame exposure. This scalable structural design overcomes traditional performance limitations, creating resilient soft materials for advanced flexible electronics and smart protective wearables.