Declining Spring Water Quality: Trends, Causes, and Management Challenges

Springs are a critical source of freshwater in India, particularly in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions, the Western Ghats, and parts of central and northeastern India, where they support drinking water, agriculture, and local ecosystems. In recent decades, the quality of spring water across the country has deteriorated significantly due to a combination of natural processes and increasing anthropogenic pressures. This review synthesizes available literature on the status and trends of spring water quality deterioration in India, with emphasis on key physicochemical and microbiological indicators. Major drivers of degradation include land-use change, deforestation, unplanned urbanization, agricultural runoff, improper waste disposal, sewage intrusion, and overexploitation of groundwater, compounded by climate-induced variability in rainfall and recharge patterns. Studies report elevated levels of nutrients, fluoride, iron, nitrates, heavy metals, and microbial contamination in several spring systems, often exceeding Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) limits for drinking water. The consequences of declining spring water quality for public health, rural livelihoods, and spring-dependent ecosystems are increasingly evident. The review underscores the need for regular monitoring, spring-shed based management, community-led conservation initiatives, and policy integration to safeguard spring water resources. Strengthening scientific research and governance frameworks is essential to ensure the long-term sustainability and safety of spring water supplies in India.