Cuproptosis: Mechanisms of Copper-Induced Cell Death

Apoptosis is a highly regulated and evolutionarily conserved form of programmed cell death that is essential for development, tissue homeostasis, and organismal defense. By enabling the orderly elimination of damaged, unnecessary, or potentially harmful cells without provoking inflammation, apoptosis maintains physiological balance in multicellular organisms. This process is executed through distinct yet interconnected molecular pathways, primarily the intrinsic (mitochondrial) and extrinsic (death receptor–mediated) pathways, both of which converge on the activation of caspases, the central executioners of apoptotic cell death. Mitochondria play a pivotal role in integrating cellular stress signals and determining cell fate through mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and the release of apoptogenic factors. Tight regulation of apoptosis is achieved through multiple control layers, including BCL-2 family proteins, inhibitor of apoptosis proteins, tumor suppressors such as p53, and survival signaling pathways. Dysregulation of apoptotic mechanisms contributes to the pathogenesis of numerous diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and viral infections. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the molecular machinery, regulatory networks, and biological significance of apoptosis, highlighting its critical role in health and disease and its relevance as a therapeutic target.