Biomimetic nanoparticles in cancer photodynamic therapy: a review of targeted delivery systems and therapeutic outcomes

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive cancer treatment that uses photosensitizers (PSs) activated by light to produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). Although PDT shows clinical promise, its effectiveness is limited by factors such as insufficient tumor targeting, tumor hypoxia, PS instability, and weak immune responses. Biomimetic nanoparticles (BNPs), which combine natural biological materials like cell membranes with synthetic nanocarriers, have emerged as versatile platforms to overcome these challenges. BNPs improve PDT by enhancing tumor-specific delivery of PSs, relieving hypoxia through oxygen delivery or catalytic oxygen generation, and boosting antitumor immunity by promoting immunogenic cell death and working synergistically with immune checkpoint inhibitors. This review details recent progress in BNP-based strategies for targeted PS delivery, ROS production enhancement, hypoxia modulation, and immune system activation. Additionally, it explores multifunctional and theranostic nanoplatforms, their applications in various cancers, and advances toward clinical use. By integrating targeted delivery, tumor microenvironment modulation, and immunotherapy, BNP-facilitated PDT holds great potential for advancing precise cancer treatments.