Understanding Graphene Through Fabrication Routes, Distinctive Properties and Application Landscape

Graphene, a two-dimensional monolayer of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, has emerged as one of the most extensively studied materials due to its exceptional physicochemical properties. Its unique atomic structure gives rise to extraordinary electrical and thermal conductivity, high mechanical strength, large specific surface area, and chemical stability, positioning graphene as a versatile platform for advanced technological applications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of graphene, emphasizing the fundamental relationship between its structure and distinguishing properties. Major synthesis techniques, including mechanical exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition, liquid-phase exfoliation, chemical oxidation–reduction routes, and electrochemical exfoliation, are critically discussed with respect to material quality, scalability, and practical feasibility. Furthermore, the review highlights recent progress in a broad spectrum of graphene-based applications spanning electronics, sensing, energy storage and conversion, healthcare, water purification, protective coatings, and commercialization efforts. Current challenges related to large-scale production, defect control, and device integration are also addressed. Finally, emerging research directions and future prospects are outlined, underscoring the potential of graphene to transition from laboratory-scale research to widespread industrial implementation. This review aims to provide a consolidated perspective for researchers and engineers engaged in the development of next-generation graphene-based technologies.