The State of Foundational Numeracy and Literacy in Zambia and Policy Implications: A Mixed Method Approach

Based on decades of experiences, literature reviews, observations and analysis of Zambia's primary education system, this study concludes that foundational literacy and numeracy levels are critically low, lagging behind regional benchmarks. This crisis is driven by systemic failures across key areas. Insufficient and unevenly distributed qualified teachers, exacerbated by high pupil-teacher ratios and disruptive transfers, weaken instruction. Chronic shortages and delays in teaching and learning materials further undermine classroom effectiveness. A profound urban-rural divide perpetuates inequality; rural schools suffer from acute resource shortages, inadequate teacher housing and sanitation, poor connectivity, and logistical challenges compounded by weak infrastructure and an insufficient rural hardship allowance. To address this, immediate and coordinated action is required. Priorities must include: 1) Revising teacher deployment and retention policies to ensure equitable distribution and stability, particularly in rural areas; 2) Guaranteeing the timely procurement and distribution of quality learning materials; 3) Investing in essential school infrastructure, including technology, electricity, water, and sanitation; 4) Strengthening school leadership and monitoring systems; and 5) Expanding access to quality Early Childhood Education (ECE) as a critical foundation for future learning. Without these strategic interventions, the goal of achieving universal foundational skills for Zambia's children will remain out of reach.