A Comprehensive Study on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle

The rapid growth of transportation demand and the associated environmental concerns have accelerated the development of sustainable mobility solutions such as Electric Vehicle (EV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV). This article presents a comprehensive overview of the historical evolution, technological requirements, and mechanical fundamentals associated with EV and HEV systems. Initially, the historical progression of electric mobility is examined, highlighting early electric automobiles, the dominance of internal combustion engine vehicles, and the modern resurgence of EV and HEV technologies driven by environmental regulations and advancements in energy storage systems. The study further discusses the need and significance of electrified transportation in addressing global challenges such as fossil fuel depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, and urban air pollution. Special emphasis is given to the power and energy supply requirements for EV and HEV applications, including battery systems, power electronics converters, and energy management strategies necessary for efficient vehicle operation. The article also explores vehicle power source characterization, considering parameters such as power density, energy density, efficiency, charging capability, and lifecycle performance. Additionally, the transmission characteristics of electric and hybrid drivetrains are analyzed to understand torque transfer and propulsion efficiency. From a mechanical perspective, the paper reviews essential vehicle dynamics including roadway fundamentals, traction forces, rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, and gradient effects. The kinetics and dynamics of vehicle motion are also discussed to explain acceleration, braking, and overall vehicle performance under varying driving conditions. By integrating electrical power supply considerations with mechanical vehicle dynamics, the article provides a multidisciplinary understanding of EV and HEV system design and operation. The findings highlight the importance of optimized power sources, efficient transmission systems, and accurate vehicle dynamic modeling for the development of reliable, energy-efficient, and environmentally sustainable transportation technologies.