Three‑dimensional culture of tumor cells (Review)

While conventional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and animal models have been cornerstone technologies in cancer research, they possess limitations in replicating human tumor pathophysiology.Notably, 2D models fail to capture key tissue-level architecture and cell-cell interactions, whereas animal models are often constrained by species-specific discrepancies and high costs, which limits their applicability in investigating precise human tumor mechanisms.To overcome these shortcomings, three-dimensional (3D) tumor models have emerged as a powerful complementary platform.The present review comprehensively explores the unique capabilities of 3D models in maintaining tumor heterogeneity, simulating the dynamic tumor microenvironment and accelerating high-throughput drug screening.The present review also highlights the transformative potential of 3D models in personalized medicine and in deciphering the mechanisms underlying metastasis.Finally, the present review proposes a visionary roadmap for in vitro 3D model innovation, with the goal of guiding their effective translation from foundational research to clinical decision-making in the future. Contents Introduction 2. Scaffold models 3. Scaffold-free culture 4. Application of 3D culture technique for tumor cells 5. Significance and prospects