Genotype to Phenotype is Dead, Long Live Genotype to Phenotype: A (Qualified) Case for Genetic Determinism

The Modern Synthesis falls short when it comes to explaining how organismal phenotype emerges during the evolutionary and developmental history of an organism. As such, the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis recognizes other non-genetic factors that influence phenotype. Ball, in his book How Life Works, has extended this view. He attacks the concept of genetic determinacy on multiple fronts: information, causation, emergence, and agency. He further highlights how biologists miscommunicate their ideas about genes and their role in evolution and development. I scrutinize his perspective using mathematics, philosophy, and empirical studies and conclude that he has misrepresented the field. In its place, I introduce system emergence as an organizing principle, and show how goals, purposes, meaning, and agency can arise as a consequence. I conclude with a framework to infer dynamical equations that stochastically connect genotype to phenotype. My hope is to provide a counterpoint that is accessible to readers of Ball and to anyone with interests in the role of genes in the determination of biological form and function. As we live in an era of misinformation, it is important to confront biases and open a broader discussion of these topics couched in empirical evidence.