Hydrogels for 3D/4D Printing and Additive Manufacturing

Recent advancements in printing and additive manufacturing have positioned three-dimensional (3D) and four-dimensional (4D) printing at the forefront of cutting-edge research. These technologies have revolutionized material fabrication, offering significant advantages across various industries, including healthcare, aerospace, and bioengineering. This chapter reviews recent developments in the use of hydrogels for 3D and 4D printing, their role in additive manufacturing, their advantages and limitations in 3D printing, and the latest innovations in 4D printing technologies that leverage hydrogels as stimuli-responsive materials are reviewed.