Cybersecurity Risks in Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) System

This chapter examines cybersecurity risks in Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) systems within emerging technologies and civil infrastructure, focusing on energy systems. As digital transformation accelerates through AI, IoT, and cyber-physical systems, the role of human operators remains critical yet increasingly vulnerable. The chapter explores how human-machine interfaces expand the attack surface, highlights real-world incidents, and analyzes emerging threats targeting both technical and cognitive aspects. By integrating insights from human factors, cybersecurity frameworks, and infrastructure design, this chapter provides strategies for resilience, governance, and risk mitigation ensuring that HITL systems remain secure, adaptive, and robust in an evolving threat landscape.