Impacts of Camel Grazing on Avicennia marina and Strategies for Mangrove Restoration in Saudi Arabia

Mangroves along the Saudi Arabian coastlines of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf provide essential services, including shoreline protection, nutrient cycling, fisheries support, and carbon sequestration. These ecosystems face natural stressors such as hypersalinity, limited freshwater inflow, and extreme temperatures, which are exacerbated by camel grazing. Browsing reduces canopy biomass, damages seedlings, and limits natural regeneration, while trampling alters soil structure, impairs gas exchange, and suppresses microbial processes. This review synthesizes regional and global evidence on camel impacts on Avicennia marina and identifies effective management strategies. Measures such as spatial exclusion, seasonal grazing regulation, and community-based stewardship significantly enhance vegetation recovery, soil integrity, and ecosystem function. When combined with restoration interventions including hydrological enhancement, sediment stabilization, and strategic planning, these practices support long-term resilience and sustainability. The findings provide an evidence-based framework for integrating grazing control into mangrove conservation programs in arid coastal environments.