Climate stress and food-energy-water challenges in Nigeria and Ghana: A DPSIR systems approach to sustainable agriculture

Integrated strategies to mitigate crop heat stress and enhance agricultural productivity are crucial for sustaining rural livelihoods in the semi-arid regions of Nigeria and Ghana. Climate change has intensified challenges such as rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and prolonged dry spells, all of which significantly threaten smallholder farmers who rely on rain-fed agriculture. This study employed systems analysis using the DPSIR framework and drew on secondary qualitative data from scholarly journals, government publications, and credible online repositories. Targeted search terms and Boolean operators were applied across major academic databases, including the Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC) via EBSCO, Web of Science, JSTOR, Scopus, ResearchGate, and ScienceDirect, to explore climate and environmental stress, agriculture, and adaptation strategies in Nigeria and Ghana. The study evaluated the technical, economic, and social potential of three climate-smart agricultural interventions: agrivoltaics, drip irrigation, and agroforestry. These solutions were analysed using the Food-Energy-Water (FEW) nexus framework and economic concepts such as externalities and market failure. The findings from this study reveal that while each solution has distinct trade-offs, collectively they offer a resilient, scalable approach to mitigate heat stress, increase productivity, reduce emissions, and promote equity. Agrivoltaics yields high returns but requires significant investment. Drip irrigation is cost-effective and rapidly deployable, and agroforestry ensures long-term ecological and social benefits. This study underscores the need for policy support, financial incentives, and inclusive governance to facilitate adoption, especially among marginalized communities in West Africa, particularly in the northern regions of Nigeria and Ghana. These integrated strategies offer a path toward sustainable and socially optimal agricultural systems in Nigeria and Ghana under climate change.