Educated by initiative

Chapter 7 investigates whether direct democracy undermines or enhances international cooperation. While the literature on direct democracy is extensive, its implications for foreign policy remain understudied due to limited comparative data and the scarcity of national-level direct democracies. The authors compile a new dataset of all popular votes on international issues held between 1945 and 2023, showing that nearly 200 referendums or plebiscites have occurred worldwide. Although most were government-initiated, they illuminate how citizens decide on cross-border matters. Contrary to claims that voters are ill-equipped or nationalistic, turnout averages 60%, and 62% of such referendums approved the proposed international agreement. Issues range from trade and peace treaties to self-determination and membership in global organizations. Evidence suggests that obligatory referendums – especially those required for treaty ratification – enhance both legitimacy and durability of commitments, as negotiators internalize anticipated public preferences. While multiple veto players can slow or complicate agreements, they also strengthen their stability once approved. Overall, the chapter concludes that direct democracy does not represent a “death sentence for multilateralism”. Instead, under well-designed institutional conditions, it fosters more credible, transparent and legitimate international cooperation by aligning state action with citizen consent.