Differentiated Integration

Differentiated integration is a central feature of the European Union (EU). This chapter starts with an analysis of current developments in differentiated integration. We observe a trend of consolidation, thanks to Brexit, the expiration of exemptions from Eastern enlargement, and the absence of new treaty changes and accessions. Moreover, the recent crises of the EU did not lend themselves to differentiated solutions because they affected highly integrated policies and involved constitutional and redistributive conflicts. Finally, we discuss EU enlargement as an important driver of differentiation. Considering past trends and current reform proposals, we argue that future enlargement is likely to increase temporary differentiation and demand for institutional reforms.