Policy Implementation

This chapter discusses the major participants in implementation and considers policy theories to explain policy implementation. In the bottom-up approach, policy is implemented by local-level administrators and elected officials—people working closest to policy clientele. Through policy networks known as advocacy coalitions—comprising interested citizens, pressure groups, and administrators—policy is formulated and implemented. Policy ambiguity is low, but resources are controlled by policy actors outside of the implementing organization; resource allocations cannot be assumed. Symbolic policies are strongly rooted in normative positions regarding government and society. Micro-level interests shape symbolic policy and policy implementation. Target groups are often described in terms of size and behavioral aspects associated with policy implementation. Policy implementation is fraught with veto points, particularly within implementing agencies. Most agency structures mimic the bureaucratic model, which reduces the number of veto points. In bureaucracies, decision-making authority is controlled by a small group of senior agency administrators.