The Federalization of International Relations in Belgium with Specific Attention to the Case of Flanders

Before the Belgian federalization of international relations in 1993, the so-called Saint Michael's agreement, the Belgian sub-state entities (particularly the Communities) were very limited in conducting a foreign policy. In 1993, Belgium became a federal country. The Regions and Communities were awarded full international competences based upon a first principle “ in foro interno, in foro externo ”. This principle refers to the convergence between the federated entities’ internal, material, and external competencies. However, a second principle places the Belgian regions and communities at the same level as the federal government. This had significant implications in European and multilateral affairs. This study examines the relevance of “identity paradiplomacy” and “multi-level diplomacy” in explaining foreign policy cooperation between Belgium's federal and federated governments. Findings suggest that “identity paradiplomacy” lacks sufficient explanatory power, while “multi-level diplomacy,” characterized by coordinated external actions across central and regional levels, offers a more robust framework. Termed a potential “fourth wave” in paradiplomacy, this shift remains incomplete, requiring institutionalized intergovernmental relations and cooperation agreements to foster joint ownership of international dossiers. Belgium's advanced cooperation agreements position it ahead of some nations, yet further progress hinges on the actions of recently formed governments in federal Belgium, Flanders, and Wallonia. Notably, the 2025 dominance of Flemish nationalists in key positions may paradoxically enhance foreign policy collaboration, with external geopolitical pressures acting as a catalyst.