Alternative Theories of Paradiplomacy

This chapter contributes to the study of paradiplomacy by reviewing and comparing three main non-traditional IR approaches used to conceptualise paradiplomacy in world politics: New Medievalism (NM), Heterarchy and Multiplexity. They all provide frameworks to explore and theorise the interactions among and between state and non-state actors (NSAs) and constitute a research perspective opposite of the Westphalian ideals of international politics structured around domestically hierarchic nation-states interacting in anarchy. The point of departure is NM, as coined by Hedley Bull, which is considered the most radical approach of all three analyzed in this chapter. NM is defined as the “system of overlapping authority and multiple loyalty” that undermines the exclusivity of states’ territorial and legal jurisdiction, emerging due to the consequences of globalization and the rise of NSAs. Following this, I explore Heterarchy, defined as “the predominance of cross-cutting sectoral mini- and meso-hierarchies above, below, and across states”. Heterarchy manifests in mechanisms and practices that undermine or transcend the anarchical logic of the state system and the hierarchical order in the domestic realm. Lastly, I investigate Multiplexity, proposed by Amitav Acharya, in response to the shortcomings of power-centric and might-centric (multi)polarity. In this chapter, Multiplexity is understood as the complexity of crosscutting orders and systems, driven by the interaction capacity of involved actors and all-embracing interconnectedness in materialistic and ideational terms. The summary of findings concludes the chapter.