Introduction

The resort to indirect force, commonly known as proxy war , remains increasingly attractive to states as a form of warfare. 1 This indirect method of engaging in conflict among states is not new, as seen during the Cold War. 2 It has become even more prevalent in the 21st century, a trend some refer to as the ‘Second Cold War’. 3 Examples include recent cases in Côte d’Ivoire, 4 Libya, 5 Ethiopia, 6 and the ongoing Iran-Saudi proxy conflicts in Syria, 7 Yemen, 8 and Iraq, 9 involving various levels of participation from allies both within and outside the region. More recently, there has been a resurgence of the so-called US-Russia proxy war in Ukraine 10 and the Iran-Israel proxy conflicts. 11 Likewise, several countries in Africa (such as Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Central African Republic, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, DRC, etc.) remain entangled in a complex network of ongoing proxy wars involving both Western and regional actors. 12