The multi-level character of the EU–China relations

This chapter applies the multi-level governance framework to explain how the European Union's relations with China unfold across supranational, national, and subnational arenas. It argues that EU–China relations cannot be understood solely through intergovernmental diplomacy, as cities and regions increasingly shape Europe's external engagement. Building on classic works by Marks (1993, 1996), Hooghe and Marks (2001) and Piattoni (2010), the chapter traces the evolution of MLG from a model of cohesion policy coordination to a broader analytical tool that captures dispersed authority, overlapping jurisdictions, and negotiated governance. The chapter then examines how this structure operates in practice, mapping the distinct roles of the European Commission, Council, Parliament, and the European External Action Service, alongside national governments and local actors. It shows that, while supranational institutions provide coherence and procedures, subnational initiatives introduce flexibility, innovation or fragmentation. Lastly, the chapter positions cities within this multi-layered system, demonstrating their agency as diplomatic actors in EU–China relations. By combining MLG with the concepts of paradiplomacy and city diplomacy, it highlights how municipalities have become indispensable, if often overlooked, contributors to Europe's external action.