The Background of the Era – The Crisis and Choices of the Eastern Empires
Abstract
In the pre-modern era, China and Japan adopted closed-door policies driven by cultural nationalism and self-sufficient economies. China's Ming and Qing dynasties restricted maritime trade and suppressed foreign influence, exemplified by Zheng He's symbolic voyages and Kangxi's intermittent sea bans. Japan's Tokugawa shogunate, fearing Catholic influence and foreign dominance, expelled missionaries and curtailed trade. Both policies stifled cultural exchange, leading to societal stagnation.
Fields of Study & Subjects
Chinese history and philosophy
Japanese History and Culture
Global Maritime and Colonial Histories
Publication details
- Journal / source
- Routledge eBooks
- Pages
- 7–15
- Publication date
- 13 March 2026
- Language
- EN
- Document type
- Book chapter