Article RETRACTED due to malpractice Sport-for-development and peace interventions and their effects on trust, cooperation, and aggression: systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction: Sport is increasingly recognized as a strategic tool for peacebuilding, particularly in contexts affected by social fragmentation and conflict; however, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of sport-based interventions remains limited and methodologically inconsistent. Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effectiveness of sport-based interventions in promoting three core peacebuilding indicators: intergroup trust, cooperation, and aggression reduction. Method: Guided by PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a systematic search was conducted across Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and relevant gray literature for studies published between 2015 and 2025. Of the 1,243 records identified, 15 quantitative studies met the inclusion criteria. Random-effects meta-analytic models were employed to address heterogeneity. Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2 and ROBINS-I, and the certainty of evidence was evaluated using GRADE. Results: The meta-analysis revealed a moderate and statistically significant overall effect of sport-based interventions on peacebuilding outcomes (g = .42, 95% CI [.31, .53], p < .001). Moderate effects were observed for intergroup trust (g = .41) and cooperation (g = .48), while reductions in aggression showed small-to-moderate effects (g = −.29). Youth-focused programs demonstrated stronger effects than community-wide interventions, and studies conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa reported the largest regional impacts. Publication bias was minimal, and the overall certainty of evidence was rated as moderate. Conclusion: Sport-based interventions contribute meaningfully to peacebuilding by enhancing trust and cooperation and reducing aggression, supporting their integration into peacebuilding strategies aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 16.