COMPARATIVE GLOBAL REVIEW OF DAM FAILURES: MINING TAILINGS VERSUS HYDRO, INDUSTRIAL, AND CIVIL DAMS — CAUSES, MECHANISMS, AND LESSONS LEARNED

Dam failures constitute some of the most severe technological disasters worldwide, with impacts extending beyond infrastructure loss to significant human, environmental, economic, and social consequences. Although failures of mining tailings dams have attracted intensified scrutiny in recent decades, dams associated with hydroelectric generation, industrial residue containment, civil infrastructure, road works, and agricultural water storage have also experienced recurrent and, in many cases, catastrophic failures throughout history. Despite sharing fundamental geotechnical and hydraulic principles, these structures differ markedly in design philosophy, construction methods, operational practices, and regulatory oversight. This review presents a comprehensive, comparative analysis of dam failures across mining and non-mining sectors, integrating historical and contemporary case studies to systematically examine failure causes, rupture mechanisms, triggering factors, and resulting consequences. Particular emphasis is placed on distinguishing mechanisms characteristic of tailings dams—such as static and dynamic liquefaction of contractive materials—from those more prevalent in conventional embankment and concrete dams, including overtopping, internal erosion, and foundation instability. Beyond technical factors, the analysis highlights the critical role of governance, operational decision-making, and risk management in shaping failure outcomes across all dam categories, demonstrating that many catastrophic events arise from common vulnerability pathways, including inadequate water management, insufficient monitoring, underestimation of extreme events, and weak regulatory enforcement. By identifying transferable lessons and cross-sectoral insights, this review supports the development of more robust, integrated, and risk-based dam safety frameworks aimed at improving prevention, early warning, and long-term resilience of dams worldwide.