Beyond flowering: the pleiotropic functions of key flowering-time genes

Genetic pathways regulating flowering time have been intensively studied for decades, yet an intriguing paradox has emerged: genes classically defined as floral regulators frequently function in biological processes far beyond flowering. Despite growing evidence, the broader roles of these genes in plant development and stress responses have not been systematically evaluated. In this review, we synthesize recent findings indicating that core flowering regulators serve as central integrators throughout the plant life cycle: influencing processes ranging from seed dormancy and germination to organ development and stress adaptation. The key floral integrators, FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1), have been evolutionarily co-opted to regulate the formation of diverse storage organs, reproductive development, and tolerance to heat stress. Similarly, the floral repressors FRIGIDA (FRI) and FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) coordinate vernalization, drought tolerance, and pathogen defense through transcriptional and epigenetic regulatory mechanisms. We propose that the recurrent involvement of these genes across diverse physiological processes reflects their strategic position as regulatory hubs that link environmental sensing to developmental reprogramming. By redefining FRI, FLC, FT and SOC1 as multifunctional integrators rather than dedicated flowering-time regulators, this review presents an updated conceptual framework for understanding how plants coordinate growth, reproduction and resilience in fluctuating environments. Furthermore, it provides valuable insights for developing breeding strategies to simultaneously enhance crop resilience and productivity in the context of climate change.