Adaptation by Cumulative Selection

Biological systems like long-lived clonal organisms, holobionts and clades challenge traditional evolutionary thinking since they adapt without populations or reproduction. This paper aims to provide an overarching theoretical framework which encompasses standard Darwinian evolution as well as other processes of adaptation. This framework is cumulative selection and I provide a general `recipe' for it to occur. Lewontin's recipe for evolution by natural selection is shown to be a particular example of cumulative selection, but not the only one. Similarly, reproduction, inheritance and populations are just one way to perform cumulative selection. I discuss several other examples of cumulative selection including clonal organisms, dioecious populations, Gaia and neural networks.