Targeted killings

This paper examines targeted killings in the Philippines as a socially embedded and enduring form of lethal violence. While research generally focuses on specific sectors, actors, or victim groups, such an approach obscures a broader pattern of recurrence across political, criminal, and social spheres. This paper starts from the observation that targeted killings recur in independent contexts and argues that diverse, context-specific dynamics are underpinned by a shared permissive environment. Various Surveys show that Filipinos display a high degree of justification for violent acts—ranging from interpersonal to political violence—placing the country among the global frontrunners in this regard. A similar tolerance extends to other illegal acts, such as bribery and tax evasion. This coherence of attitudes indicates a permissive normative environment in which targeted killings are not regarded solely as criminal extremes but as at times legitimate actions. The findings suggest that a common cultural framework contributes to the persistence of this practice. In the Philippines, significant segments of the population view violence as, at times, an acceptable means of pursuing interests or exercising social control. Although social attitudes do not directly determine individual actions, they lower the moral and psychological barriers to considering or condoning violence. Reducing targeted killings therefore requires more than apprehending hitmen or prosecuting individual masterminds—it demands addressing the deeper cultural and institutional conditions that make such violence acceptable.