Analysis of Essential and Toxic Elements in Tap and Bottled Water from the UK and its Comparison with Literature Data for Drinking Water from African Countries: Implications for Human Health

This study compares the presence of essential and toxic elements in UK and African waters. Drinking water samples (n=93) were collected from Leicester, UK [45 bottled drinking water (BDW) samples and 48 tap drinking water (TDW) samples]. Concentrations of 26 elements were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Notably, cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) were detected only in TDW samples, with detection percentages of 25% and 60.4%, respectively. In contrast, very low concentrations of arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg) were detected in 82.2% and 100% of BDW samples and in 88.9% and 95.6% of TDW samples, respectively. All detected element concentrations were within World Health Organization safety limits. The hazard quotient (HQ) and Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) values for toxic elements were below the permissible limits, suggesting no significant long-term health risks. In contrast, recent literature from some African countries has revealed high concentrations of toxic elements, such as Pb and As, with HQ and ILCR exceeding guidelines. Consumption of water can be higher in African countries, which have warmer climates, and this will further increase their exposure to these toxic elements compared to the UK. Furthermore, our recent research has shown high concentration of Pb in some popular African foods. The cumulative effect of exposure to Pb from water and foods is a cause for concern in Africa. There is an urgent need to lower toxic elements in African drinking water through improvements to the water treatment and distribution systems as well as preventing environmental pollution.