Factors affecting plant growth: A comprehensive review

Plant growth is a fundamental biological process that determines agricultural productivity, ecosystem stability, and food security. It results from complex interactions between genetic potential, physiological regulation, environmental conditions, and management practices. This comprehensive review synthesizes current knowledge on the major factors influencing plant growth, with emphasis on internal regulatory mechanisms and external environmental drivers. Genetic background and physiological processes, including hormonal regulation and metabolic efficiency, form the intrinsic basis of growth. External factors such as soil fertility, nutrient availability, water status, temperature, light, and biotic interactions further shape growth responses across different agroecological systems. Recent advances in microbial biotechnology, biofertilizers, and plant–microbe interactions have revealed significant opportunities to enhance growth sustainably while reducing chemical inputs. Moreover, increasing environmental stresses associated with climate variability have highlighted the importance of adaptive growth responses and integrated management strategies. By consolidating findings from experimental studies, applied research, and systematic reviews, this paper provides a holistic framework for understanding the multifactorial nature of plant growth. The review also identifies research gaps and future directions, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary approaches that integrate plant physiology, microbiology, soil science, and agricultural technology to achieve sustainable crop production.