ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF MECHANISMS, BURDEN, AND CONTROL APPROACHES

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical and growing global health threat that compromises the effective treatment of infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It arises from the overuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents in human medicine, veterinary practice, and agriculture, as well as from inadequate infection control, poor sanitation, and global travel. The spread of resistance is facilitated by both vertical and horizontal gene transfer, making once-treatable infections increasingly difficult or impossible to cure. Despite the urgent need, the development of new antimicrobial drugs remains slow, and resistance continues to rise, particularly among high-priority pathogens such as multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida auris. A One Health approach addresses human, animal, and environmental health in an integrated way which is essential to slow the spread of AMR. Solutions must include better diagnostics, antimicrobial stewardship, public awareness, and international collaboration to preserve the effectiveness of existing treatments and to support the development of new therapeutic strategies.