INDEPENDENT CONSTRAINTS AND THE DOMAIN OF VALIDITY OF PHYSICAL THEORIES

Independent-Constraint Framework (ICF): Classification of physical systems from Solar System bodies to Cosmic evolution This work presents the Independent-Constraint Framework (ICF), a measurement-based methodology for classifying physical systems and identifying observational gaps across scales from planetary bodies to cosmological regimes. Core Methodology: ICF organizes systems into empirical families defined by discontinuities in independently observable parameter space. Independent constraints are measurements from physically distinct processes (orbital dynamics, spectroscopy, occultations) with uncorrelated systematic errors. Classification validity requires: (i) ≥2 independent measurement methods, (ii) explicit uncertainty propagation (δQ formulas provided), (iii) consistency tests showing agreement within 2σ or identifying tensions >3σ. Part I - Solar System classification (spacecraft data 1962-2024): Four planetary families emerge from mass-radius-density measurements with >100σ boundary separations: High-Density Bodies (ρ > 3.9 g/cm³, N=4), Massive Hydrogen-Dominated (M > 95 M⊕, ρ < 1.4 g/cm³, N=2), Intermediate-Density (14-17 M⊕, 1.2-1.7 g/cm³, N=2), and Small Hydrostatic Bodies (M < 10²² kg, N=2+). Validation examples: Earth GM measured by two methods agrees to 7×10⁻¹⁰; Jupiter GM to 4×10⁻⁸. Part II - Cosmic evolution classification (Planck 2018, SH0ES 2022, DES/KiDS 2020-21): Three observable stages classified by redshift-density-expansion observables: Early-Stage (z > 1000, radiation-dominated), Intermediate-Stage (10 < z < 1000, matter-dominated), Mature-Stage (z < 10, dark-energy-dominated). BBN-CMB consistency validated to